对指示性有条件的研究通常旨在确定其真实条件，或者解释我们应该如何与他们进行推理以及何时可以主张它们。本文通过阐明指示性有条件的三价，真实功能的真理条件来整合这些语义和认识论项目。基于此框架，我们提供了有条件概率的非经典说明，以及有条件推理的两个逻辑：（i）从某些前提中推断的逻辑C，可以推断推断推理；（ii）从不确定前提中推断的逻辑U，概括了不诚实的推理。两种逻辑在其领域都非常有吸引力。它们为有条件推理提供了一个统一的框架，概括了现有理论（例如，亚当斯的“合理推论”逻辑），并对有关Modus Ponens，Import-Export和其他条件逻辑原理的争议进行了深入的分析。

在本文中，我们组合了两个独立的检测方法来识别假新闻：算法Vago使用语义规则与NLP技术相结合，测量文本中的模糊和主体性，而分类器假CLF依赖于卷积神经网络分类和监督深度学习将文本分类为偏见或合法。我们比较四个语料库的两种方法的结果。我们在vago获得的模糊和主观性措施之间找到了积极的相关性，以及由假CLF偏向的文本分类。比较产生互利：Vago有助于解释假CLF的结果。相反，Fake-CLF帮助我们证实并扩展Vago的数据库。使用两个互补技术（以基于规则的VS数据驱动）证明了识别假新闻的挑战性问题。

知识可定义是合理的真实信念（“JTB”）？我们认为，人们可以积极地或负面地回答，具体取决于一个人的真实信仰是否合理，我们称之为足够的原因。为了促进我们的论点，我们介绍了一个简单的基于理性的信念的命题逻辑，并提出了充分性的概念的公理表征。我们表明，此逻辑足以灵活，以适应各种有用的功能，包括由于原因的量化。我们使用我们的框架对比JTB的两位概念进行对比：一个内部家，另一家族。我们认为Gettier案例基本上挑战了内部概念，但不是外科医生。我们的方法致力于一系列关于知识的非押金主义，但它也让我们陷入困境，即知识是否涉及只有足够的原因，或者留下房间的原因不足。我们赞成后者的立场，这反映了一个更温和和更现实的无押金主义。

The success of neural networks builds to a large extent on their ability to create internal knowledge representations from real-world high-dimensional data, such as images, sound, or text. Approaches to extract and present these representations, in order to explain the neural network's decisions, is an active and multifaceted research field. To gain a deeper understanding of a central aspect of this field, we have performed a targeted review focusing on research that aims to associate internal representations with human understandable concepts. In doing this, we added a perspective on the existing research by using primarily deductive nomological explanations as a proposed taxonomy. We find this taxonomy and theories of causality, useful for understanding what can be expected, and not expected, from neural network explanations. The analysis additionally uncovers an ambiguity in the reviewed literature related to the goal of model explainability; is it understanding the ML model or, is it actionable explanations useful in the deployment domain?

Many problems in machine learning involve bilevel optimization (BLO), including hyperparameter optimization, meta-learning, and dataset distillation. Bilevel problems consist of two nested sub-problems, called the outer and inner problems, respectively. In practice, often at least one of these sub-problems is overparameterized. In this case, there are many ways to choose among optima that achieve equivalent objective values. Inspired by recent studies of the implicit bias induced by optimization algorithms in single-level optimization, we investigate the implicit bias of gradient-based algorithms for bilevel optimization. We delineate two standard BLO methods -- cold-start and warm-start -- and show that the converged solution or long-run behavior depends to a large degree on these and other algorithmic choices, such as the hypergradient approximation. We also show that the inner solutions obtained by warm-start BLO can encode a surprising amount of information about the outer objective, even when the outer parameters are low-dimensional. We believe that implicit bias deserves as central a role in the study of bilevel optimization as it has attained in the study of single-level neural net optimization.

An expansion of aberrant brain cells is referred to as a brain tumor. The brain's architecture is extremely intricate, with several regions controlling various nervous system processes. Any portion of the brain or skull can develop a brain tumor, including the brain's protective coating, the base of the skull, the brainstem, the sinuses, the nasal cavity, and many other places. Over the past ten years, numerous developments in the field of computer-aided brain tumor diagnosis have been made. Recently, instance segmentation has attracted a lot of interest in numerous computer vision applications. It seeks to assign various IDs to various scene objects, even if they are members of the same class. Typically, a two-stage pipeline is used to perform instance segmentation. This study shows brain cancer segmentation using YOLOv5. Yolo takes dataset as picture format and corresponding text file. You Only Look Once (YOLO) is a viral and widely used algorithm. YOLO is famous for its object recognition properties. You Only Look Once (YOLO) is a popular algorithm that has gone viral. YOLO is well known for its ability to identify objects. YOLO V2, V3, V4, and V5 are some of the YOLO latest versions that experts have published in recent years. Early brain tumor detection is one of the most important jobs that neurologists and radiologists have. However, it can be difficult and error-prone to manually identify and segment brain tumors from Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) data. For making an early diagnosis of the condition, an automated brain tumor detection system is necessary. The model of the research paper has three classes. They are respectively Meningioma, Pituitary, Glioma. The results show that, our model achieves competitive accuracy, in terms of runtime usage of M2 10 core GPU.

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated impressive capabilities in natural language understanding and generation, but the quality bar for medical and clinical applications is high. Today, attempts to assess models' clinical knowledge typically rely on automated evaluations on limited benchmarks. There is no standard to evaluate model predictions and reasoning across a breadth of tasks. To address this, we present MultiMedQA, a benchmark combining six existing open question answering datasets spanning professional medical exams, research, and consumer queries; and HealthSearchQA, a new free-response dataset of medical questions searched online. We propose a framework for human evaluation of model answers along multiple axes including factuality, precision, possible harm, and bias. In addition, we evaluate PaLM (a 540-billion parameter LLM) and its instruction-tuned variant, Flan-PaLM, on MultiMedQA. Using a combination of prompting strategies, Flan-PaLM achieves state-of-the-art accuracy on every MultiMedQA multiple-choice dataset (MedQA, MedMCQA, PubMedQA, MMLU clinical topics), including 67.6% accuracy on MedQA (US Medical License Exam questions), surpassing prior state-of-the-art by over 17%. However, human evaluation reveals key gaps in Flan-PaLM responses. To resolve this we introduce instruction prompt tuning, a parameter-efficient approach for aligning LLMs to new domains using a few exemplars. The resulting model, Med-PaLM, performs encouragingly, but remains inferior to clinicians. We show that comprehension, recall of knowledge, and medical reasoning improve with model scale and instruction prompt tuning, suggesting the potential utility of LLMs in medicine. Our human evaluations reveal important limitations of today's models, reinforcing the importance of both evaluation frameworks and method development in creating safe, helpful LLM models for clinical applications.

Migraine is a high-prevalence and disabling neurological disorder. However, information migraine management in real-world settings could be limited to traditional health information sources. In this paper, we (i) verify that there is substantial migraine-related chatter available on social media (Twitter and Reddit), self-reported by migraine sufferers; (ii) develop a platform-independent text classification system for automatically detecting self-reported migraine-related posts, and (iii) conduct analyses of the self-reported posts to assess the utility of social media for studying this problem. We manually annotated 5750 Twitter posts and 302 Reddit posts. Our system achieved an F1 score of 0.90 on Twitter and 0.93 on Reddit. Analysis of information posted by our 'migraine cohort' revealed the presence of a plethora of relevant information about migraine therapies and patient sentiments associated with them. Our study forms the foundation for conducting an in-depth analysis of migraine-related information using social media data.

Human linguistic capacity is often characterized by compositionality and the generalization it enables -- human learners can produce and comprehend novel complex expressions by composing known parts. Several benchmarks exploit distributional control across training and test to gauge compositional generalization, where certain lexical items only occur in limited contexts during training. While recent work using these benchmarks suggests that pretrained models achieve impressive generalization performance, we argue that exposure to pretraining data may break the aforementioned distributional control. Using the COGS benchmark of Kim and Linzen (2020), we test two modified evaluation setups that control for this issue: (1) substituting context-controlled lexical items with novel character sequences, and (2) substituting them with special tokens represented by novel embeddings. We find that both of these setups lead to lower generalization performance in T5 (Raffel et al., 2020), suggesting that previously reported results have been overestimated due to uncontrolled lexical exposure during pretraining. The performance degradation is more extreme with novel embeddings, and the degradation increases with the amount of pretraining data, highlighting an interesting case of inverse scaling.

Machine learning model development and optimisation can be a rather cumbersome and resource-intensive process. Custom models are often more difficult to build and deploy, and they require infrastructure and expertise which are often costly to acquire and maintain. Machine learning product development lifecycle must take into account the need to navigate the difficulties of developing and deploying machine learning models. evoML is an AI-powered tool that provides automated functionalities in machine learning model development, optimisation, and model code optimisation. Core functionalities of evoML include data cleaning, exploratory analysis, feature analysis and generation, model optimisation, model evaluation, model code optimisation, and model deployment. Additionally, a key feature of evoML is that it embeds code and model optimisation into the model development process, and includes multi-objective optimisation capabilities.